Cross-validation of muon content in extensive air showers with surface and underground detectors of AugerPrime
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Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica; Argentina. Gerencia de Área Académica. Gerencia Instituto de Tecnología "Jorge Sabato"
Universidad Nacional San Martin. Instituto de Tecnología "Jorge Sabato"; Argentina
Department of Physics of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT); Alemania
Universidad Nacional San Martin. Instituto de Tecnología "Jorge Sabato"; Argentina
Department of Physics of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT); Alemania
Resumen
Los rayos cósmicos de ultra alta energía (UHECR, por sus siglas en inglés), partículas cargadas con energías superiores a ∼ 1018 eV, se encuentran entre los fenómenos más energéticos observados en la naturaleza. A pesar de más de medio siglo de estudios, su origen, mecanismos de aceleración y composición química siguen siendo cuestiones abiertas en la física de astropartículas. Comprender estos aspectos es fundamental para desentrañar los procesos que gobiernan la aceleración de partículas en los entornos astrofísicos más extremos y para poner a prueba los modelos de interacciones hadrónicas a energías muy superiores a las alcanzables en los aceleradores terrestres. Debido a su flujo extremadamente bajo a las energías más altas, los UHECR no pueden detectarse de forma directa. En su lugar, se estudian a través de las lluvias atmosféricas extendidas (EAS, por sus siglas en inglés), cascadas de partículas secundarias generadas cuando los rayos cósmicos primarios interactúan con la atmósfera. Entre las distintas componentes de la lluvia, el número de muones constituye un observable especialmente sensible a la composición en masa del primario. A lo largo de las últimas décadas, las mediciones han revelado de manera consistente un exceso de muones en comparación con las predicciones de los modelos contemporáneos de interacción hadrónica. Esta discrepancia persistente, conocida como el Muon Puzzle, señala una comprensión incompleta de la producción hadrónica múltiple o la posible existencia de nueva física. La determinación precisa del contenido de muones en función de la energía primaria y del ángulo cenital es, por lo tanto, esencial para restringir los modelos de interacción y mejorar la interpretación de la composición de los rayos cósmicos. El Observatorio Pierre Auger, en Argentina, la instalación más grande del mundo dedicada al estudio de los UHECR, combina una extensa red de detectores Cherenkov con telescopios de fluorescencia para registrar las propiedades de las EAS con una precisión sin precedentes. Su actualización en curso, AugerPrime, mejora la sensibilidad del Observatorio a la composición primaria mediante la incorporación de detectores complementarios. De particular importancia es el Detector Subterráneo de Muones (UMD), diseñado para medir la componente muónica de las lluvias atmosféricas aprovechando el blindaje natural del suelo para suprimir el fondo electromagnético. El UMD proporciona así una medición directa de los muones de alta energía que alcanzan la superficie, ofreciendo una herramienta independiente para estudiar el contenido muónico de las lluvias. Este trabajo se centra en la estimación de la densidad de muones a nivel del suelo utilizando datos del UMD y en el desarrollo de técnicas de calibración que vinculen los observables subterráneos y de superficie. El análisis combina simulaciones detalladas de lluvias atmosféricas generadas con CORSIKA y procesadas en el marco oficial de simulación y reconstrucción de Auger, Offline, junto con datos reales recopilados por los detectores de AugerPrime. La relación entre la densidad de muones subterránea, ρ ug, y la densidad real en superficie, subterránea, ρ ug, y la densidad real en superficie, ρ og, se caracterizó como función de la energía primaria y del ángulo cenital, resultando en una parametrización robusta y libre de sesgos válida en todo el rango de condiciones simuladas. Estudios complementarios sobre la propagación de muones en el suelo se llevaron a cabo empleando tanto la Aproximación de Pérdida Continua de Energía (CSDA) como simulaciones completas con Geant4, permitiendo cuantificar con precisión el umbral energético impuesto por el blindaje del UMD. A partir de estos resultados, se desarrollaron funciones de calibración que conectan la densidad de muones estimada en superficie con la señal muónica simulada en los Detectores Cherenkov de Agua (WCD) del Detector de Superficie (SD). Además, se emplearon estimadores basados en redes neuronales previamente entrenadas y desarrolladas por la Colaboración Pierre Auger para inferir la componente muónica de las señales de los WCD, lo que permite su aplicación a datos reales en los que la señal pura de muones no puede extraerse directamente. Finalmente, la calibración establecida se aplicó a datos reales recopilados por el Observatorio Pierre Auger, proporcionando por primera vez una comparación directa entre los observables muónicos derivados del SD y los medidos por el UMD. Los métodos y resultados presentados en esta tesis demuestran que el UMD puede utilizarse eficazmente para estimar la densidad de muones a nivel del suelo y calibrar los observables muónicos de superficie. Los resultados obtenidos son consistentes con las mediciones más recientes basadas en el UMD sobre composición y déficit de muones, contribuyendo así a una comprensión unificada del contenido muónico en las lluvias atmosféricas y a los esfuerzos en curso de AugerPrime por resolver el Muon Puzzle.
Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs), charged particles with energies exceeding ∼ 1018 eV, stem from the most energetic phenomena observed in nature. Despite more than half a century of study, their origin, acceleration mechanisms, and composition remain open questions in astroparticle physics. Understanding these aspects is crucial for unveiling the processes governing particle acceleration in the most extreme astrophysical environments and for testing hadronic interactions at energies far beyond those accesible in terrestrial accelerators. Because of their extremely low flux at the highest energies, UHECRs cannot be detected directly. Instead, they are studied through extensive air showers (EAS), cascades of secondary particles generated when primary cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere of Earth. Among the various shower components, muons provide a particularly sensitive probe of the hadronic cascade and of the primary mass composition. Over the past decades, measurements have consistently revealed an excess of muons relative to predictions from contemporary hadronic interaction models. This long-standing discrepancy, known as the Muon Puzzle, points to an incomplete understanding of hadronic multiparticle production or possibly to new physics. Precise determination of the muon content in EAS as a function of primary energy and zenith angle is therefore essential to constrain interaction models and to improve the interpretation of the mass composition of cosmic rays. The Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, the world’s largest facility for UHECR research, combines a vast array of water-Cherenkov detectors (WCDs) in the Surface Detector (SD) with fluorescence telescopes to record the properties of EAS with unprecedented precision. Its ongoing upgrade, AugerPrime, enhances the Observatory’s sensitivity to the primary composition by adding complementary detectors. Of particular importance is the Underground Muon Detector (UMD), designed to measure the muonic component of air showers by exploiting the natural shielding of the soil to suppress the electromagnetic component. The UMD thereby provides a direct measurement of high-energy muons that reach the ground, offering an independent handle on the muon content of air showers. This work focuses on the estimation of the muon density at ground level using data from the UMD and on the development of calibration techniques that link underground and surface observables. The analysis combines detailed Monte Carlo simulations of extensive air showers generated with CORSIKA and processed within the official Auger simulation and reconstruction framework Offline, with real data collected by the AugerPrime detectors. The relationship between the muon density underground, ρ ug, and the true simulated muon density at the surface, ρ og, was char- acterized as a function of primary energy and zenith angle, resulting in a robust and unbiased parameterization valid over the full range of simulated conditions. Complementary studies of muon propagation through soil were carried out using both the Continuous Slowing Down Approximation (CSDA) and full Geant4 simulations to precisely quantify the energy threshold imposed by the UMD shielding. Based on these results, calibration functions were developed to connect the estimated on- ground muon density to the simulated muonic signal in the WCDs. In addition, pre-trained neural network estimators developed within the Pierre Auger Collaboration were employed to infer the muonic component of the WCD signals, enabling application to real data where the pure muon signal cannot be directly extracted. Finally, the established calibration was applied to real data collected by the Pierre Auger Observatory, providing for the first time a direct cross comparison between muon observables derived from the SD and those measured by the UMD. The methods and results presented here demonstrate that the UMD can be effectively employed to estimate the muon density at ground level and to calibrate Surface muon observables. The obtained results are consistent with the latest UMD-based measurements of mass composition and muon deficit, thus contributing to a unified understanding of the muon content in extensive air showers and to the ongoing efforts within AugerPrime to resolve the Muon Puzzle.
Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs), charged particles with energies exceeding ∼ 1018 eV, stem from the most energetic phenomena observed in nature. Despite more than half a century of study, their origin, acceleration mechanisms, and composition remain open questions in astroparticle physics. Understanding these aspects is crucial for unveiling the processes governing particle acceleration in the most extreme astrophysical environments and for testing hadronic interactions at energies far beyond those accesible in terrestrial accelerators. Because of their extremely low flux at the highest energies, UHECRs cannot be detected directly. Instead, they are studied through extensive air showers (EAS), cascades of secondary particles generated when primary cosmic rays interact with the atmosphere of Earth. Among the various shower components, muons provide a particularly sensitive probe of the hadronic cascade and of the primary mass composition. Over the past decades, measurements have consistently revealed an excess of muons relative to predictions from contemporary hadronic interaction models. This long-standing discrepancy, known as the Muon Puzzle, points to an incomplete understanding of hadronic multiparticle production or possibly to new physics. Precise determination of the muon content in EAS as a function of primary energy and zenith angle is therefore essential to constrain interaction models and to improve the interpretation of the mass composition of cosmic rays. The Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina, the world’s largest facility for UHECR research, combines a vast array of water-Cherenkov detectors (WCDs) in the Surface Detector (SD) with fluorescence telescopes to record the properties of EAS with unprecedented precision. Its ongoing upgrade, AugerPrime, enhances the Observatory’s sensitivity to the primary composition by adding complementary detectors. Of particular importance is the Underground Muon Detector (UMD), designed to measure the muonic component of air showers by exploiting the natural shielding of the soil to suppress the electromagnetic component. The UMD thereby provides a direct measurement of high-energy muons that reach the ground, offering an independent handle on the muon content of air showers. This work focuses on the estimation of the muon density at ground level using data from the UMD and on the development of calibration techniques that link underground and surface observables. The analysis combines detailed Monte Carlo simulations of extensive air showers generated with CORSIKA and processed within the official Auger simulation and reconstruction framework Offline, with real data collected by the AugerPrime detectors. The relationship between the muon density underground, ρ ug, and the true simulated muon density at the surface, ρ og, was char- acterized as a function of primary energy and zenith angle, resulting in a robust and unbiased parameterization valid over the full range of simulated conditions. Complementary studies of muon propagation through soil were carried out using both the Continuous Slowing Down Approximation (CSDA) and full Geant4 simulations to precisely quantify the energy threshold imposed by the UMD shielding. Based on these results, calibration functions were developed to connect the estimated on- ground muon density to the simulated muonic signal in the WCDs. In addition, pre-trained neural network estimators developed within the Pierre Auger Collaboration were employed to infer the muonic component of the WCD signals, enabling application to real data where the pure muon signal cannot be directly extracted. Finally, the established calibration was applied to real data collected by the Pierre Auger Observatory, providing for the first time a direct cross comparison between muon observables derived from the SD and those measured by the UMD. The methods and results presented here demonstrate that the UMD can be effectively employed to estimate the muon density at ground level and to calibrate Surface muon observables. The obtained results are consistent with the latest UMD-based measurements of mass composition and muon deficit, thus contributing to a unified understanding of the muon content in extensive air showers and to the ongoing efforts within AugerPrime to resolve the Muon Puzzle.
