The muon content of extensive air showers measured by the underground muon detector of the Pierre Auger Observatory
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Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica; Argentina. Gerencia de Área Académica. Gerencia Instituto de Tecnología "Jorge Sabato"
Universidad Nacional San Martin. Instituto de Tecnología "Jorge Sabato"; Argentina
Department of Physics of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT); Alemania
Universidad Nacional San Martin. Instituto de Tecnología "Jorge Sabato"; Argentina
Department of Physics of the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT); Alemania
Resumen
Diseñado para estudiar los rayos cósmicos de mayor energía, el Observatorio Pierre Auger es el observatorio más grande y preciso de su tipo. Totalmente operativo durante más de una década, actualmente está experimentando una actualización, AugerPrime, para mejorar la separación entre las componentes electromagnéticas y muónicas de las lluvias de aire producidas por los rayos cósmicos. El Detector Subterráneo de Muones desempeña un papel crucial en AugerPrime, ya que permite una medición directa de la componente muónica, un observable sensible clave para determinar la composición de masa de los rayos cósmicos. Identificar las masas de los rayos cósmicos podría ayudarnos a resolver los misterios relacionados con su origen. Además, los rayos cósmicos de ultra alta energía son de particular interés para investigar la física de partículas más allá de las escalas de energía de los colisionadores modernos. No obstante, está bien establecido que las simulaciones actuales de lluvias de aire no logran reproducir el contenido de muones observado en los datos. Mientras que las mediciones de muones parecen ser consistentes con simulaciones hasta alrededor de 1×1016 eV, se observa un creciente déficit de muones en las simulaciones a energías más altas, lo que desafía nuestra comprensión de las interacciones hadrónicas a las energías más altas. El Detector Subterráneo de Muones está equipado con módulos de centelleo enterrados a 2.3 m, proporcionando dos métodos complementarios para la estimación de muones: el modo binario para bajas densidades de partículas y el modo ADC para altas densidades de partículas. Esta tesis se centra en el modo ADC, su calibración y las técnicas de reconstrucción para medir con precisión las altas densidades de muones cerca del punto de impacto del núcleo de la lluvia y, en consecuencia, determinar el contenido de muones en las lluvias de aire. Para mejorar la reconstrucción de los datos, se desarrolla un nuevo algoritmo para la estimación de la carga de la señal. Con una mejor comprensión de las señales medidas por el detector, revisamos la estrategia de calibración existente. Si bien fue diseñado para estimar la carga depositada por los muones atmosféricos individuales, este método introduce un bias a favor de muones inclinados de alta energía debido a la condición de trigger requerida, lo que genera un bias significativo en la reconstrucción de muones. Además, mostramos que la calibración de detectores subterráneos requiere una consideración cuidadosa de las interacciones de partículas penetrantes a través de la materia. Dado que el modo ADC se basa en la carga de la señal determinada por la energía depositada por los muones en los centelladores plásticos, examinamos el impacto de la deposición de energía por otras partículas de la lluvia. En particular, mostramos que los delta electrones (electrones knock-on) producidos en el suelo circundante mientras los muones atraviesan el medio afectan significativamente las mediciones de carga. Para corregir esto, se propone una nueva estrategia de calibración que asegura un estimador de muones sin bias, aplicándola a los datos de un período de seis años. Después de mejorar significativamente la reconstrucción de muones para altas densidades de partículas, desarrollamos un método de likelihood combinada que integra ambos modos de adquisición binario y ADC para reconstruir la Función de Distribución Lateral de Muones. Este método se valida a través de simulaciones del detector completo. Finalmente, presentamos la primera medición del contenido de muones en lluvias extensas de aire, producida por rayos cósmicos con energías entre 2×1017 eV y 1×1019 eV, obtenida utilizando la información del modo ADC. Para interpretar la composición en masa, se realizaron simulaciones dedicadas de lluvias de aire con protones e iones de hierro primarios a través de todo el rango de energías, ya que la composición solo puede inferirse mediante la comparación con simulaciones. Nuestro análisis confirma que los datos revelan un creciente déficit de muones en las simulaciones de lluvias de aire cuando aumenta la energía, consistente con los hallazgos de otros experimentos. Estos resultados proporcionan un valioso aporte para mejorar los modelos de interacción hadrónica a altas energías, lo que podría conducir a mejores análisis de la composición en masa y, en última instancia, a una comprensión más profunda del origen de los rayos cósmicos.
Designed to study the highest-energy cosmic rays, the Pierre Auger Observatory is the largest and most precise observatory of its kind. Fully operational for over a decade, it is currently undergoing an upgrade, AugerPrime, to enhance the separation between the electromagnetic and muonic components of air showers produced by cosmic rays. The Underground Muon Detector plays a crucial role in AugerPrime, as it enables a direct measurement of the muonic component—a key sensitive observable for determining cosmic-ray mass composition. Identifying the masses of the incoming cosmic rays could help us solve the mysteries regarding their origin. Additionally, ultra-high-energy cosmic rays are of particular interest to probe particle physics beyond the energy scales of modern colliders. Nevertheless, it is well established that current air-shower simulations fail to reproduce the muon content observed in data. While muon measurements seem to be consistent with simulations up to about 1×1016 eV, a growing muon deficit in the simulations is observed at higher energies, challenging therefore our understanding of the hadronic interactions at the highest energies. The Underground Muon Detector is equipped with scintillation modules buried at 2.3 m, providing two complementary methods for muon estimation: binary mode for low particle densities and ADC mode for high particle densities. This thesis focuses on the ADC mode, its calibration, and reconstruction techniques to accurately measure high muon densities close to the shower core impact point and, consequently, determine the muon content in air showers. To enhance data reconstruction, a new algorithm for signal charge estimation is developed. With a better understanding of the signals measured by the detector, we revise the existing calibration strategy. While designed to estimate the charge deposited by individual atmospheric muons, this method introduces a bias favouring inclined, high-energy muons due to the trigger condition requested, which generates a significant bias in muon reconstruction. Additionally, we show that calibrating underground detectors requires careful consideration of the interactions of penetrating particles through matter. Since the ADC mode relies on the charge of the signal determined by the energy deposited by muons in the plastic scintillators, we examine the impact of energy deposition by other shower particles. In particular, we show that delta (knock-on) electrons produced in the surrounding ground as muons traverse the medium significantly affects the charge measurements. To correct for this, a new calibration strategy is proposed that ensures an unbiased muon estimator, applying it to data covering a six-year period. After significantly improving the muon reconstruction for high particle densities, we develop a combined likelihood method that integrates both binary and ADC acquisition modes to reconstruct the Muon Lateral Distribution Function. This method is validated through full-detector simulations. Finally, we present the first measurement of the muon content in extensive air showers, produced by cosmic rays of energies between 2×1017 eV and 1×1019 eV, obtained using the information of the ADC mode. To interpret the mass composition, dedicated air shower simulations with proton and iron primaries were performed across the full energy range, as composition can only be inferred through comparison with simulations. Our analysis confirms that data reveals a growing muon déficit in air-shower simulations when increasing energy, aligning with findings from other experiments. These results provide a valuable input for improving the high-energy hadronic interaction models that could lead to better mass composition analyses and, ultimately, a deeper understanding of the origin of cosmic rays.
Designed to study the highest-energy cosmic rays, the Pierre Auger Observatory is the largest and most precise observatory of its kind. Fully operational for over a decade, it is currently undergoing an upgrade, AugerPrime, to enhance the separation between the electromagnetic and muonic components of air showers produced by cosmic rays. The Underground Muon Detector plays a crucial role in AugerPrime, as it enables a direct measurement of the muonic component—a key sensitive observable for determining cosmic-ray mass composition. Identifying the masses of the incoming cosmic rays could help us solve the mysteries regarding their origin. Additionally, ultra-high-energy cosmic rays are of particular interest to probe particle physics beyond the energy scales of modern colliders. Nevertheless, it is well established that current air-shower simulations fail to reproduce the muon content observed in data. While muon measurements seem to be consistent with simulations up to about 1×1016 eV, a growing muon deficit in the simulations is observed at higher energies, challenging therefore our understanding of the hadronic interactions at the highest energies. The Underground Muon Detector is equipped with scintillation modules buried at 2.3 m, providing two complementary methods for muon estimation: binary mode for low particle densities and ADC mode for high particle densities. This thesis focuses on the ADC mode, its calibration, and reconstruction techniques to accurately measure high muon densities close to the shower core impact point and, consequently, determine the muon content in air showers. To enhance data reconstruction, a new algorithm for signal charge estimation is developed. With a better understanding of the signals measured by the detector, we revise the existing calibration strategy. While designed to estimate the charge deposited by individual atmospheric muons, this method introduces a bias favouring inclined, high-energy muons due to the trigger condition requested, which generates a significant bias in muon reconstruction. Additionally, we show that calibrating underground detectors requires careful consideration of the interactions of penetrating particles through matter. Since the ADC mode relies on the charge of the signal determined by the energy deposited by muons in the plastic scintillators, we examine the impact of energy deposition by other shower particles. In particular, we show that delta (knock-on) electrons produced in the surrounding ground as muons traverse the medium significantly affects the charge measurements. To correct for this, a new calibration strategy is proposed that ensures an unbiased muon estimator, applying it to data covering a six-year period. After significantly improving the muon reconstruction for high particle densities, we develop a combined likelihood method that integrates both binary and ADC acquisition modes to reconstruct the Muon Lateral Distribution Function. This method is validated through full-detector simulations. Finally, we present the first measurement of the muon content in extensive air showers, produced by cosmic rays of energies between 2×1017 eV and 1×1019 eV, obtained using the information of the ADC mode. To interpret the mass composition, dedicated air shower simulations with proton and iron primaries were performed across the full energy range, as composition can only be inferred through comparison with simulations. Our analysis confirms that data reveals a growing muon déficit in air-shower simulations when increasing energy, aligning with findings from other experiments. These results provide a valuable input for improving the high-energy hadronic interaction models that could lead to better mass composition analyses and, ultimately, a deeper understanding of the origin of cosmic rays.
